Human sexual behavior Essay

Sexual assault takes many forms including attacks such as rape or attempted contacts or threats. Usually a sexual assault occurs when someone touches you in a way, even through clothes, without that person’s consent. Some types of sexual assault include forced sexual intercourse, sodomy, or fondling and attempted rape. Sexual assault in any form is often a devastating acquaintances, friends, or family members. Assailants commit sexual assault through manipulation, pressure or tricks. Drinking and sexual assault, alcohol is often a contributing factor in sexual assault. A perpetrator may even buy a person drinks to intentionally increase the chances of being manipulate the senses and their judgment. Even if we pick up a danger sign or trust them. Tisa advisable to avoid having sex when you’ve had a lot to drink, because even if you have a condom, you’ll be much less likely to use it correctly and therefore face another consequence. Movies, television shows and music are full of sex. It seems that the world is all about sex. Parents and students both need to know what is happening in the worlds and among themselves. Talking about sex seems like a good way to begin by educating our children of the rights and wrong of such sexual activity. When it come to children being involved with sex; Now on child abuse cases, I believe that no single act such strong emotions as the act of child sexual abuse. Child molesters can not even find refuge in prisons where rapist and murderers are commonplace. These offenders are shut out in aspect of our society, yet there are no reasons as to the causes of this behavior. Sexual abuse of children is not new, and has not always been socially taboo. Back in the days it was a commonplace for adolescent males to be forced into sexual relationship with mature males. This behavior was normal and not objected to by the child’s parents but sex with children in the modern era is alive and well, the power of an older person is so great that their young victim often never tell of the horrors that they have experienced. It is just like the pedophiles who confessed that they insist that their behavior is not wrong. Because of the extreme sensitivity of this subject, research has been really difficult and quite hard to develop. In the case of the pedophiles in order for the community or society to go into further deepest they must first attempt to gain an understanding of WHY? Pedophiles can be classified into different categories by several issues, the most common of which are causation and victim-realtionship.Howerever; pedophiles can be separated by those who sexually abuse members of their own family and those who abuse non family members. The reasons rapists are going free is when will the men and woman of our world be able to live their lives without being raped by another person? I feel many men and woman are getting away with harming another person through sexual confrontation without their permission. Men as well as woman can be raped, but fewer men will the police about it they would rather keep it under because they are being criticized for being weak which are untrue. Both, men and woman are the scary thing is that there is a possibility that their cases will not be product of their rape kits are not being processed efficiently. These are the ones that are not being brought to trail. Going back to the Megan’s Law when people think of their neighbors, do they think of violent sex crimes? Many people have to deal with this everyday of life. There are no laws forcing people of a community when a sex crime offender moves into their town. Said to keep violent sex crimes offenders from staking again, but do we ask ourselves this questions? The answer all depends on the opinion of the person who is being asked. Many supporters of the Megan’s law say that the law is keeping some predators from striking again, but many critics says that the laws is unethical and many agreements come from that. This is another question proposed when the topic of sexual offenders brought up, is it breaking any of the amendments or is it necessary for co workers to know whether a sex crime offender is living in their neighbors. Are you a juvenile or an adult? Megan’s law makes this question very complicated. Some times we might think we are juvenile’s, but by law we can be and treated as an adult. At the age of 13, you can go to some health clinics and get some medical treatments and testing done without your parent’s permission, such as pregnancy, alcohol/drug, and sexual transmitted diseases. Most of the time, if you are under 18, you need your parents permission, unless you are married, or in the military. At 15 Â ½ you can get a special permit to drive with a legal guardian, but if you break a traffic law you are considered an adult if you commit crime, such as killing, drug related, rape, repeated offenses, or stealing a car. If you are under 18, and are picked up by a police officer and taken to juvenile court, a juvenile officer will decide how to handle your case. Then a juvenile judge hears the evidence with you and your parents. The judge studies the whole complete picture of you, and your crime, and then decides as to whether or not your case will be held in juvenile Court or in Adult Court. If your cases are held in Juvenile Court and you are found guilty, and since he has made a complete study of you and your case, he will be the one to decide how and what will happen to you. If you are tired as an adult and found guilty, naturally the punishment will be more severe.

A Strategic Report on Emirates Airlines Essay

It is important to study of any business, particularly in a global environment of rapidly changing contexts. In this regard, there are several core strategies that management need to consider and monitor in reviewing the ongoing performance of their business. In order to respond to change effectively, management must regularly assess its efficiency in several different areas of the performance of within company life. Management strategists need to identify their competitive advantages, properly position themselves and clearly identify their competitiveness in the marketplace. Therefore, management must constantly analyse and respecify their business objectives as well as setting new strategic goals to keep up their operations in a dynamic environment. Airlines Industry We live in a global world that is more interconnected than at any time in history. In combination with enormous changes to the communications industry and the rapid spread of information via the Internet, the world constantly experiences 24 hour a day movement of data, goods, services, and people traveling every corner of the world in less than one day. As quoted by Oxford Economics, â€Å"every day in the skies above us; our globalized world has long been woven together by a web of flights, creating ever-expanding social and economic networks across the planet†. (Aviation: The Real World Wide Web 2008, p. 7). In 2011, for example, airlines transported 2. 8 billion passengers and 47. 6 million metric tons of air cargo and actively connected the world’s cities with 36,000 routes. (The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013, p. 7). In addition to the transport of goods, business travel has also grown as companies become increasingly internationally focused. As a result, airline industry is a strategic sector having a crucial role in other industries globalization. According to The airline industry, the outlook for the air travel industry is one of strong growth, but it will not be without challenge. Those airlines that would be able to deal with their cost and enhance their product would be successful. An example of the market threats for airlines was seen in 2009, when airline businesses faced global economic downfall and overall industry-wide losses of $9. 4 billion caused by high oil prices, long global recessions, falling demands, fierce price-cutting, collapsing yields revenue per mile and low consumer confidence. A result, the demand for air travel decreased, and the market contracted resulting in global bankruptcies and necessary shrinkage in networks and service levels. Although Emirate Airlines faced the same challenges as other airlines, it performed remarkably well against prevailing industry norms despite the worldwide increasing contraction (Nataraja & Al-Aali 2011, p471). This case study will further explore the strategies competitive advantages used by Emirates management team to perform in such a competitive market. Emirates Airlines Samthomasuae ‘s weblog post (2011) covers that Emirates Airlines, known as Emirates, is part of the Emirates Group which has become a reputation for aviation, travel and tourism. The group is owned by the Dubai Government. Emirates is connected to all continents in the world with one hundred and twenty destinations over six continents. Therefore, with more than 50 business units and associated firms, Emirates is one of the largest employers in the Middle East. Emirates is the seventh largest in the world based on the number of carried international passengers, and fourth largest in the world in terms of scheduled international passenger kilometre flown. Within the first 11 years of operation, it has doubled its size every 3. years (Nataraja & Al-Aali 2011, p485). History Emirates started its business in 1985 with two aircrafts, a Boeing 737 and an Airbus 300 B4, with start-up capital of $10 million. Emirates made history by generating of profit within nine months of operations, and It went on the further develop its international routes by adding new destinations such as Bombay, Colombo, Dhaka and Cairo. The result of this bold expansion strategy was that within two years, Emirates had added European destinations including the key city of London, as well as several other new key European destinations. The success of the global strategy of Emirates is not due to the fact that the airline is wholly owned by the Government of Dubai, or because they have received inadvertent government protection but is clearly a case study in the implementation of a successful global competition strategy, in particular taking advantage of Dubai’s open-skies policy which enables Emirates to benefit from the liberalization of international aviation rules and regulations. Emirates, therefore, received initial start-up investment from the Government of Dubai, but it now successfully operates as a wholly independent business entity. Emirates successfully carried 35 million passengers by 2012, representing 50% of total airport capacity (emirates. n. d. ). Emirates market share among regional competitors According to Articlebase weblog post (2010) Emirates Airlines has developed to become highly reputable in the Asian Pacific Continent. The company has pulled itself up very well in the region and as seen from the figure 1, it is the most successful company in the region. Figure 1-Emirate region market share Emirates financial highlights According to Emirates annual report (2013), Emirates revenue (including operating costs) in 2012-13, reached US$19. billion, representing a 17. 4% increase over the financial year of 2011-12. Net profit was US$622 million, reflecting the enormous impact that fuel prices continue to exert on the airline industry. Emirate airlines reported that their profit margin was 3. 1% and the companies’ cash in hand at the end of financial year 2012-13 was US$6. 7 Billion. The company also reports that more people continue to choose Emirates with the number of passengers flown in 2012-13 totalling 39 million, a 16% increase over the previous financial year. Figure 2, Emirate financial highlight/Source: Emirates Annual report 2013 Key Success Factors in the airline industry In order to be successful in the airline industry, various factors such as differentiation, alliances, strong brand name and relation with suppliers are needed to be considered. Differentiation Airlines tend to be differentiated by offering advanced services. For instance, latest technology, e-ticketing and wide seats which may distinguish the company among other competitors. Strong brand name Airlines build a strong brand name by means of different techniques like ffering prizes, frequent flyer programs. Alliances The airlines tends to establish alliances which enable them to share their resources through linking their network. it also helps them to share experiences which result in lower operating cost. â€Å"The Emirates has never joined to any cargo or passenger alliances as they see some anti-competitive elements in them and would be a brake on Emirates business plan. † (The public affair journal of emirates, 2009). the only recent partner of emirate is Quantas from Australia. Relations with supplier Airlines need to have long term contract with the suppliers to keep them safe in case of increasing prices. Environmental analysis of Emirates Macro Environmental Analysis PESTEL analysis of Emirates PESTLE analyse focuses on external factors and gives a strategic overview of the various macro-environmental factors that the company needs to take into account, the PESTEL analyse has been conducted on Emirates. The PESLE analyse is also a useful strategic tool to interpret market growth or decline, business position, potential, and direction for future operations. Political  Emirates and most of the countries in the Asian continent have signed inclusive business agreements as well as with several countries in the Asia-Pacific, Europe, and the USA. Such relationships facilitate better political cooperation and trade opportunities between countries, including the growth of the aviation sector. These agreements have opened up several world markets and provided opportunities for Emirates to grow its network. Emirates is strengthened by the support of the Government of Dubai by providing infrastructure developments to boost the growth of Dubai and Emirates. Low fees and charges at Dubai Airport; same opportunities for all the air carriers provided by the open skies policy; the low taxation policy encouraging the companies and businesses which boost the economy in Dubai; and the easy immigration legislation of Dubai Government enabling companies to secure entry visas and work permits for foreign workers to fulfil their labour requirements are other beneficial policy for Emirates. In contrast, a potential problem for Emirates is the ongoing political instability in the  Middle East region which has the potential to hinder for the further growth of Emirates. (Nataraja & Al-Aali 2011, p482). Economic The sustainable rate of a growing economy in the region, in particular the United Arab Emirates (UAE), has increased the overall level of household income and affordability of people to use air transportation. About 3. 5 billion people are living within the radius of eight hour flight from Dubai and , therefore, such a huge financially stable population generates an ever- increasing demand for air travel in the region. There is an exceptional shift in the aviation market demand, customer choices, and travel behaviour that is changing rapidly which has been evidenced by Nataraja et al (2011, p483). The reason Emirates has experienced phenomenal rise over the past few years is that the regional governments are streamlining their economic policies to suit the growth of the airline industry. This has reflected in growth rates, overall income and potential investments in Dubai among other companies in the tourism industry and the world business.   social  Nataraja et al (2011, p483) state that well-designed strategic management system is sound in the Emirates Company, but this could be compromised if attention is not given to personnel development in the organization. Personnel issues are adversely affecting airline businesses globally and employees are becoming increasingly aware of their high market value and potential. An abundance of multicultural workforce having lower expectation in the region in which Emirates operates is a social advantage in comparison to the expectations of employees from countries namely the USA and UK, Emirates experiences a significant difference in labour costs. Most of the organizations in the UAE are using only 10 precent of their operating expenses to pay their employees and this trend includes Emirates, in comparison to more Westernized businesses which use up to 40 precent of their operating expenses for the same purpose. Consequently, the Airline has benefited extensively and made good profits on these grounds. Technology In response to the advances in technology over the past two decades, Emirates has been able to take the advantage of technology in its operation. Since Emirates has spread its wing globally to serve diverse customers who require global technology, it has invested more resources to place each individual market. Emirates is benefiting from a single global system that is distributed in 14 languages which supports payments in 42 currencies. (Nataraja et al,2011, p483). As it is demonstrated in figure 1, Emirates is interestingly positioned as the youngest and most modern fleets in worldwide commercial aviation industry. The company aims to be a pioneer in technological advances such as in-flight mobile phone coverage to develop and expand the use of mobile phones on-board. Figure 3 , comparison of Airlines’ average fleet age Emirates airlines has also invested in a trip planning system which allows the planning of trips that aim to achieve of time savings and fuel led which lead to obvious costs savings but also reduced emissions. Implementation of this new technology, called Flextracks, saves approximately 10 million liters of fuel as well as 772 hours in travel time in five years of operation. atwonline, 2011) Emirates airline has also recently used the latest airbus 380 aircraft which is known to be environmentally friendly because it consumes less fuel. Technology utilized by provides many time consuming benefits such as the development of online ticket purchase which increases customer convenience and satisfaction and the likelihood of repeat business. Environment Organizations have various obligations to formulate and implement strategies from an environmental perspective. Increasing numbers of firms are implementing tougher environmental regulations as they make economic sense because of conservation of natural resources and air pollution control in the region. They preserve and conserve natural resources and control pollution in the region making good sense from a cost saving perspective as well as a public relations perspectives(Nataraja & Al-Aali 2011, p484). Emirates reports a vision to make their company an environmental leader in the aviation and travel industries with a goals to make sustainable and eco-efficient operation in the air and on the ground. Interestingly, as part of a global trend towards environmental consciousness, Emirates considers their customers, staff and regulators to be increasingly aware of the environment and emission of greenhouse gases and the company has , therefore, committed to environmentally-responsible operations through the Group’s Environmental Policy. This policy is implemented through the ‘Environment’ programme (Emirates environment policy,2013) , which is communicated to customers, staff and stakeholders. The company also reports different environmental considerations to be advantageous from a business perspective because becoming an ecologically-efficient organisation enables them to become economically sustainable, when it comes to consumption of fewer resources and whilst using fewer resources and causing less pollution. These strategies in turn, reduce labour and overall company expenses. Legal In the past, most governments within the Asian continent and in the Asia-Pacific region operated under a paternal government policy and felt that they had to protect airlines against external factors. The recent changes in the economic policies of these governments have allowed airlines to compete more openly having their own economic model without worrying about government hindrances in order to preserve their competitive advantage. In addition, less government control allows the company to operate more freely in the region with less legal impediments in the region resulting in a positive growth and an exceptional performance (Nataraja & Al-Aali 2011, p484). Emirates-porter’s five forces Porter’s 5 forces model is used by businesses to evaluate the environment that a company is competing in. Strategies implemented by Emirates also are a function of environment in which it operates. (Elnamaki, MSS 2007). By using Five Forces Analysis we are able to identify who are the Emirates competitors and where are potential threats; which aspect in Emirates should be improved and focused on; and to analyse whether Emirates and its industry is attractive or destructive. Threat of new entrant There are many barriers that dissuade new entrants in the airline industry. Enter to the market depends on how many barriers exist. Airlines high capital cost positively affect Emirates Airline. Strong brand value is critical to compete. Emirates is a high brand value that cannot be copied because it is a long time it has been operating, and markets heavily depend on its services. Advanced technologies are kind of barrier for a new entrant as they need to develop and implement them before effectively competing Based on Emirates loyalty programs, customers are loyal to Emirates. Building a value brand needs money and time and it uses resources which not to be allocated to compete in the marketplace. Based on the above factors the threat of new entrant is weak. The bargaining power of customers Due to buyer price sensitivity, it is difficult to compete with competitive prices of budget carriers but Emirates compensates by offering world class food, services, comfort and in-flight entertainment, world class service, A380 aircrafts, choices of menu for the elite class, its own private terminal, and non-stop direct flights to various routes including some of the world’s longest non-stop direct flights. I suggest that this power is moderate.

Culture as an Important Facet of Society

A society without culture is as good as dead. Discuss. A society according to Thomas, L (1995:25) is defined as â€Å"a group of mutually interdependent people who have organized in such a way as to share a common culture and feeling of unity†. In other ways society consists of people, and culture consists of products that people create. Culture according to Giddens (2005:45) refers to â€Å"the pattern of human activity and the symbols, which give significance to this activity†. Culture is represented through the art, literature, costumes, customs and traditions of a community.Different cultures exist in different parts of the world. The natural environment greatly affects the lifestyle of the people of that region, thus shaping their culture. The diversity in the cultures around the world is also a result of the mindsets of people inhabiting different regions of the world. There are several components of human culture namely; symbols, language, values and beliefs, nor ms, and technology. Symbols are anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture. The simplest most everyday things are symbols for examples a wave of the hand can be a friendly gesture of hello.However, if not done properly with all the fingers in the upright position it can be a rude gesture and a great sign of disrespect. The honking of a car horn is a symbol to grab someone's attention to their surroundings. Even something as common as a kiss is a symbol of love and caring. Language is a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with each other. Language can be words or sounds that are spoken or words that are written. For instance some people believe that dogs communicate with each other through barking, this may be their own language.Values are culturally defined standards by which people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty, and that serve as broad guidelines for social living. Beliefs are specific statements that people hold to be true. There are several examples of both that can be found by looking at the Christian religion. The Ten Commandments are a great source. â€Å"You shall have no other gods before me†, for Christians this statement is both a belief and a value. â€Å"Honor you father and mother† is a statement that Christians hold true and also one that they set their standards of living by.The other example of values and beliefs is â€Å"You shall not murder† a statement they stand by and live their lives by. Norms are rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members. One example of a norm is not cheating on a test, we all know this is wrong and should not be done at all cost. Technology is knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings, which is reflected by material culture an example of this is Plasma TV's you can simply hang these picture perfect TV's anywhere on the wall.It is true to say that no society exists witho ut culture because of the following facets that culture brings to society which are as follows: The cultural values of a community give it an identity of its own; a community gains a character and a personality of its own, because of the culture of its people. Culture is shared by the members of a community. It is learned and passed from the older generations to the newer ones. For an effective transfer of culture from one generation to another, it has to be translated into symbols. Language, art and religion serve as the symbolic means of transfer of cultural values between generations.Culture is a bond that ties the people of a region or community together; It is that one common bond, which brings the people of a community together. The customs and traditions that the people of a community follow, the festivals they celebrate, the kind of clothing they wear, the food they eat, and most importantly, the cultural values they adhere to, bind them together. Culture is seen as a system of social control, wherein people shape their standards and behavior; the cultural values form the founding principles of one's life. They influence one's principles and philosophies of life.They influence one's way of living and thus impact social life. Culture is the Treasury of Knowledge; culture provides knowledge, which is essential for the physical and intellectual existence of man. Birds and animals behave instinctively with environment. But man has greater intelligence and learning capacity. With the help of these, he has been able to adapt himself with environment or modify it to suit his convenience. Culture has made such an adaptation and modification possible and easier by providing man the necessary skills and knowledge.Culture preserves knowledge and helps its transmission from generation to generation through its means that is language helps not only the transmission of knowledge but also its preservation, accumulation and diffusion. On the contrary, animals do not h ave this advantage because culture does not exist at such human level. Culture Defines Situations; culture defines social situations for us. It not only defines but also conditions and determines what we eat and drink, we wear, when to laugh, weep, sleep, love to like friends with, what work we do, what god we worship, what knowledge we rely upon, what poetry we recite and so on.Culture Defines Attitudes, Values and Goods; attitudes refer to the tendency to feel and work out in certain ways. Values are the measure of goodness or desirability. Goods refer to the attainments, which our values define as worthy. It is the culture, which conditions our attitude towards various issues such as religion, morality, marriage, science, family planning, positions and so on. Our values concernsing private etc. are influenced by our culture. Our goals of winning the race, understanding others, attaining salvation, being obedient to elders and teachers, being loyal to husband, being patriotic etc. re all set forth by our culture. We are being socialized on these models. Culture Decides Our Career; whether we should become a politician or a social worker, a doctor, an engineer, a soldier, a farmer, a professor, an industrialist; a religious leader and so on is decided by our culture. What career we are likely to pursue is largely decided by our culture. Culture sets limitations on our choice to select different careers. Individuals may develop, modify or oppose the trends of their culture but they always live within its framework. Only a few can find outlet on the culture.Culture Provides Behavior Pattern; Culture directs and confines the behavior of an individual. Culture assigns goals and provides means for achieving them. It rewards noble works and punishes the ignoble ones. It assigns him status. We see dream, aspire, work, strive to marry, enjoy according to the cultural expectation. Culture not only contains but also liberates human energy and activities. Man indeed is a prisoner of his culture. Culture Provides Personality; Culture exercises a great influence on the development of personality. No child can get human qualities in the absence of a cultural environment.Culture prepares man for group life and provides him the design of living. It is the culture that provides opportunities for the development of personality and sets limits on its growth. As Ruth Benedict has pointed out every culture will provide its special type or types of personality. Culture Makes Man a Human Being; It is culture that makes the human, a man, regulates his conduct and prepares him for group life. It provides to him a complete design for living. It teaches him what type of food he should take and in what mariner, how he should over himself and behave with his fellows, how he should speak with the people and how he should co-operate or compete with others. An individual abstained from culture is less than human; he is what we call feral, man. The individual to be tru ly human must participate in cultural stream without it he would have been forced to find his own way, which would mean a loss of energy in satisfying his elementary needs. Culture Provides Solution for Complicated Situation; culture provides man with a set of behavior even for complicated situation.It has so thoroughly influenced that often he does not require any external force to keep himself in conformity with the social requirements. His action becomes automatic. Forming queues when there is rush at the booking window or driving left in the busy streets. In the absence of culture, he should have been baffled even at the simplest situations. He need not go through painful trial and error learning to know what food can be taken without poisoning himself and fellow. His culture directs and confines his behavior, limits his goals and measures his reward.His culture gets into his mind and shutters vision so that he sees what is supposed to see in dream what he is expected to dream a nd hunger for what he is trained to hunger. Culture Provides Traditional Interpretations to Certain Situation; through culture men gets traditional interpretation for many situations according to which he determines his behavior. If a cat crosses his way, he postpones his journey. It may however be noted that these traditional interpretation differ from culture to culture. Among some culture owl is regarded as a symbol of wisdom and not a symbol of idiocy.Culture Keeps Social Relationship Intact; culture has importance not only for man but also for the group. Had there been no culture there would have been no group life. Culture is the design and the prescription for guiding values and ideals. By regulating the behavior of the people and satisfying, the primary drives pertaining to hunger and sex it has been able to maintain group life. Culture has provided a number of checks upon irrational conduct and suggestibility culture aids such as in schooling or scientific training. Lessen the chances that a man will behave irrationally or irresponsibility.The members of group characterized though they be by consciousness of kind, at once competing. They are held in line by constraints prescribed by culture. Culture Broadens the Out Looks of the Individual; culture has given a new vision to individual by providing him a set of rules for co-operation of the individuals. He thinks not only his own self but also of the others. Culture teaches him to think himself a part of the larger whole, it provides him with the concept of family, state, nation and class and make responsible the cooperation and division of labor.Culture Creates New Needs; Culture also creates new needs and new drives, for example, thirst for knowledge and arranges for the satisfaction. In conclusion culture and society are co-existent one does not or cannot exist without the other, culture and society may have some common elements but the two are not the same they are not identical the essential diffe rence is that society is composed of people while culture consists of knowledge, ideas, customs, traditions, folkways, mores, skills, institutions, organizations and artifacts.

Ebola disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ebola disease - Essay Example The medical laboratory diagnosis illustrates a decrease in platelets and low white blood cells count together with an enzyme elevation (Hewlett & Hewlett, 2008). In clinical check up, it is difficult to differentiate Ebola Viral Disease from other common infectious diseases like typhoid, meningitis, malaria and fever. There are several ways to reaffirm whether the symptoms are Ebola viral infections. Antigen capture detection tests, electron microscopy and antibody capture immonusorbent assay of enzyme linkage are some of the prime investigations for Ebola virus (Stimola, 2011). Other methods include cell culture viral isolation, reverse polymerase chain reaction assay and serum neutralization test. Maximum biological containment option is needed to conduct biological non-inactivated laboratory testing to avoid further infection. In treatment, Ebola requires oral and intravenous fluids alongside care rehydration. Specific signs and symptoms treatment increase the chances for survival since there is no specific treatment for this killer disease now. A range of treatments like immune therapies, blood products treatments and drug therapies are in the current evaluation to reduce Ebola risks. There is also an absence of licensed vaccines for Ebola prevention, but the discovered vaccines are still under the safety for human testing (Stimola,

UNIT6 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

UNIT6 - Research Paper Example Bussard v. Minimed, Inc. 105 Cal.App.4th 798 (2003). This is covered under the theory of respondeat superior. Id. In Bussard, the employee inhaled fumes while at work and decided to leave work. Id. On her way back from work, she got into a car accident and sued her employer for vicarious liability. Id. Here, the Court used the foreseeability analysis which examines whether the employee’s conduct and whether it is so surprising that it cannot be fairly attached to the employer. Id. In O’Shea v. Welch, the Court found that vicarious liability is limited to injuries caused within the scope of the employer’s employment. O’Shea v. Welch, 350 F.3d 1101 (2003). This may extend to injuries that are reasonable incidental to that employment. Id. This would be interpreted as the employer reasonably being able to foresee these injuries as a result of the employer’s acts. Id. In O’Shea, a store manager drove from his store toward the district office of the company he worked for. During the drive, the store manager decided to turn his car into the service station. Id. At that time, he got into a car accident and as a result, the plaintiff sued both the driver and his employer for negligence and vicarious liability under the theory of respondeat superior. Id. In our case pattern, John was performing his duties as an employer by driving to the manufacturing facility for the dealership that he works for. Therefore, he was acting within the scope of his employment. However, even though his boss was with him, John’s side frolic to go to his cousin’s house for dinner is not foreseeable in the work that needed to be performed. It was not a detour in the road that John needed to take because of construction on the road that lead him to the accident. John himself decided to go on a frolic to his cousin’s house that was not reasonably foreseeable by the employer. Under the theory of respondeat superior, an employer is responsible for his employer’s actions

Cardiovascular Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cardiovascular Disease - Essay Example According to Kantrowitz and Wingert (2006), a few years back, heart diseases were considered to be the concern of men alone, and women, especially those below 50years did not have to worry about cardiovascular diseases. However, recent studies have demonstrated that both men and women, especially women after menopause and men after 55years of age are a greater risk of cardiovascular accidents (Kantrowitz and Wingert, 2006). It is estimated that 50-70 million Americans have cardiovascular problems and according to Noonan (2005), cardiovascular events was responsible for the deaths of 260,000 American men in year 2000 alone. It is therefore regarded as the nation's no 1 killer (Underwood, 2005). Many risk factors are associated with cardiovascular disease; most can be managed, but some cannot. The aging process and hereditary predisposition are risk factors that cannot be altered. Until age 50 men are at greater risk than women of developing heart disease, though once a woman enters menopause, her risk triples (Kannel, 1997). According to the American Heart Association (AHA), increasing age is a major risk of cardiovascular diseases; they report that over 83% of people who die of heart problems are 65 or older. Mae gender and genetic predisposition are two other risk factors that cannot be altered. ... disease includes specific therapy for any underlying causes and may include Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (e.g., captopril, enalapril, lisinopril), beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol), blood thinners (e.g., aspirin, warfarin), the combination of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate, digitalis, nitroglycerin, and diuretics. Also, surgical procedures such as angioplasty, bypass surgery, valve replacement, pacemaker installation, and heart transplantation, are common treatment options (Gluckman et al, 2004). According to Underwood (2005), Mounting evidences point to the fact that chronic emotional states such as stress, anxiety, hostility, depression or childhood trauma and loneliness play very important roles in the cause of cardiovascular diseases. These factors are appearing to be as potent or even stronger than the conventionally established cardiovascular risks, such as smoking, diabetes etc. It is believed that emotional states affect behavior. For instance, depressed, angry people are less likely to stick with diet and exercise regimens and are more likely to smoke. In one study, the most hostile subjects consumed 600 more daily calories than the least hostile. Also, such negative emotions can have direct effects, too, by provoking the stress response of the classic fight-or-flight mechanism. The body releases stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine (adrenaline). In response, blood pressure and blood-glucose levels increase, while chemical changes in the blood enhance th e clotting reaction to help heal wounds. In the short term, these are survival mechanisms. But over the long haul, chronic high blood pressure and elevated glucose damage blood vessels (Underwood, 2005). High blood cholesterol is also one of the major predisposing factors

A Supermarket Marketing Strategy for Expanding its Store Essay

A Supermarket Marketing Strategy for Expanding its Store - Essay Example This essay covers fully developed marketing plan for a small wine company Castlegate Wines Ltd. In every organisation, there are some key marketing management decisions which play a pivotal role in determining the performance of an organisation. These include the product, price, distribution and management. In every day operations of an organisation, the total number of sales it makes plays a very important role in determining the overall performance. The main target in every organisation is to sell all what it produces in the shortest period possible. However, it requires an organisation to invest in and be able to come up with best marketing strategies which would help in maximizing sales. In the current business world, the market has become extremely competitive due to entrant of many players in the market. In the wine industry, the level of competition has increased significantly over the past. In order for any organisation to be successful in the market, they need to have a good marketing strategy on top of their retail wine stores. This will help an organisation to reach as many customers as possible hence maximizing its sales. Marketing plan in this essay is divided by such parts as: background and arguments, public relations, advantages of selling through supermarkets, impact and effectiveness of a supermarket strategy for expanding, effects of the strategy to Castlegate Wines Ltd, other necessary marketing measures, difficulties, opposition & barriers and recommendations.

Expanding Your Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Expanding Your Business - Assignment Example Guerrilla marketing strategy involves the use of unconventional and low cost advertising strategy to promote the business. Such strategy is often used locally and through an organized network which actually promotes the business and advances it in relatively unconventional manner. (Levinson, 2003) This marketing plan is related with the marketing of the new coffee shop and is based upon offering a critical strategic outlook and insight into the overall marketing efforts to be taken. The overall product range will not be limited to the freshly served coffee only but will also include selling merchandize such as caps, t-shirts and other items thus increasing the overall products to sell. Since Hot and Sweet Cafà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ positions itself as an organization for all, who prefers hot and cold beverages. The customer profile of ‘Hot and Sweet Cafà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ ranges between an age-group of 15- 45 years. Considering this, the overall goals to be achieved by executing this strategy include: It is critical to note that the owners of the business are assuming that the overall access to finances will be restricted at the early stages. In order to overcome this, it is therefore important to initiate and set up a marketing campaign which can deliver results without incurring much of the cost. 1. In order to expand the business, marketing buzz will be created for the cafà © at local level. An undercover marketing campaign will be started to create the opportunities for interaction between the consumers and the business to increase the overall exposure of the product. The overall marketing buzz will be created through word of mouth as well as through the viral marketing on social media. 2. Viral marketing will be started with specific targeting on the local consumers in the area. With the help of the online marketing platforms such as facebook and Google ads, a local campaign will be started to attract

Microeconomices Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Microeconomices - Term Paper Example f individuals, firms, and industries in terms of producing and consuming of economic goods and services, the concept of cost is relevant as it affects microeconomic activities of the units concerned. For consumers and individuals who are not familiar with the concepts of costs, one might have the tendency to discard this as irrelevant and immaterial. However, close examination of these underlying theories would enlighten consumers on their effects on prices and quantities of goods which are normally offered to the public. It is therefore the objective of this essay to present relevant concepts, theories and applications concerning costs in microeconomics. The costs to be discussed range from opportunity cost, production costs, marginal cost, cost of externalities, the law of diminishing returns and economies of scale. It is interesting to note that in economics, all costs are considered opportunity costs. As rationalized by Petroff (par. 2), â€Å"anytime a resource is used for any purpose, it implies that some other good cannot be produced with that quantity of the resource, that some other resource is not used for the given production instead, and that revenues from other production are foregone. Thus, costs are either explicit cost for the resource used or implicit costs from alternative use of the resource.† To use a practical application, for a consumer who decided to buy a television set, the opportunity cost could be the value of a trip to a nearby beach resort which was not taken due to the purchase. Productions costs are normally related to firms or business enterprises engaged in manufacturing or producing goods for sale to the public. The concept of productions costs are not only discussed in microeconomics but more so in accounting or finance. Production managers are tasked with monitoring the costs of raw materials as well as labor and overhead costs to maximize profits. These costs could be classified as fixed, variable and total costs. Petroff

Pricing Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Pricing Strategy - Essay Example As economic cycles decline, however, management teams cannot drive volume improvements. Pricing improvements, however, are an important route to increasing profitability. The key to improving profitability through pricing lies in moving from a tactical to a strategic approach to pricing. Pricing strategy involves much more than merely setting price points. In order to achieve profitable pricing, managers must consider both their price structure and their pricing process. Pricing structure is built around target customer segments and culminates in constructing the Product-Service-Price menu. The menu then becomes the basis for constructing and positioning offerings for the customer targets. Pricing processes focus on communicating value delivery to the target customers while minimizing negotiation driven price discounting in the selling process.1 "We begin with the most fundamental of economic constructs, price, because much of the analytic power of economic theory stems from the abstract image of markets that generate prices.On the surface, price adjustment might seem like an odd place to understand a process of social construction. Few economic precepts are more taken for granted than the notion that markets determine prices. Moreover, few economic concepts offer so little social content as price. Neoclassical price theory is a highly stylized theory of market behavior. It presumes that social content is unimportant to market outcomes. It offers no theory of how prices work in a firm; simply a notion that they do work. In neoclassical economic theory, firms readily react to changes in market conditions by adjusting prices. A wide variety of changes may take place: changes in costs, supply, or demand, competitive entry or actions, change in technology, and so on. Firms incorporate those changes and adjust prices upward or downward. Classical economics assumes that because organizations are endowed with this ability to adjust prices, industries, markets and economies can function efficiently. Much of the existing literature in economics takes this ability for granted, assuming this as a kind of innate organizational capability. To a student of organizations, this seems like an unrealistic belief, and indeed, some economists acknowledge this. In economics the literature on the costs of price adjustment argues that price adjustment can be a complex and costly organizational problem. For example, Caplin and Leahy (1991) argue that price adjustment is a "very difficult, costly and time-consuming process," Levy, et al. (1997) suggest that changing prices "is a complex process, requiring dozens of steps and a non-trivial amount of resources," and Ball and Mankiw (1994, p.142) "suspect that the most important costs of price adjustment are the time and attention required of managers to gather the relevant information and to make and implement decisions." According to Blinder, et al. (1998, p. 21) these costs have become "one of the main strands of New Keynesian theorizing." Yet it remains a problem about which, Blinder, et al. (1998: 4) argue, economists know "next to nothing," even though "a small mountain of

Pfizer Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pfizer - Case Study Example In this way, without a lineup of potential breakthroughs in the pipes, the level to which the firm can continue to rely on cash cows that are soon to go off patent is severely constrained. As yet another example of the focus that the firm had on the development and introduction of runaway successes such as Lipitor, the firm had positioned itself as primarily a research and development organization that was hopefully able to introduce profitable drugs into the market on a regular basis as a means of ensuring that the profitability and cash flow of the company stayed intact. However, this positioning strategy was out of sync with market demands due to the fact that the rapidly evolving nature of other competitors meant that lower cost research and development was being performed by a host of competitors; thereby greatly reducing the profit margin and potential profit margins that such a runaway discovery such as Lipitor could yield. As a way to formulate strategy, the firm sought to integrate OTC markets and generic branding to its repertoire; however, the main money supply for the firm was still tasked towards developing new drug lines. This of course did not support t he strategic vision that leadership espoused. Though the strategic vision was sound, the lack of funding meant that it was not fully able to respond to the markets and the completive environment in which it hoped to

International Management Essay Example for Free

International Management Essay Q.1. Good governance is one of the qualifying features for attracting inward investment. What ways in which governance can be improved to help countries benefit from foreign investment? Globerman and Shapiro (2002) studied the effects of governance quality on Foreign Direct Investment inflows and outflows, by using a sample of developing and developed countries between 1995-1997. They applied HDI (Human Development Index) and ESI (Environmental Sustainability Index) along with Kaufmann’s six governance indicators which include: voice and accountability, political stability and absence of violence, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of law and control of corruption) to assess the impact. They found that good governance had a strong positive relationship with FDI inflows. Thus, countries can benefit the most from inward investment by improving on the six dimensions of governance suggested by Kaufman et al (2009). Inward investment generates job opportunities for local people and increase the level of economic activity in the host country. It also raises competition in the domestic market and the standard of living of people by improving the quality of products/services being offered, reducing prices and giving more value for money. With FDI inflows, developing countries benefit from transfer of technology and management practices. Many MNCs (Multi-national companies) drive research development, innovation and are responsible for training the human capital of a less developed host country. Labor productivity and increase in real incomes of citizens of a country are important benefits of FDI inflows into a country. Countries must encourage economic freedom and liberalize trade in order to benefit from FDI inflows. A sound financial system including banks, stock markets and bond markets attract foreign investors. A strong financial system allows MNCs to expand and reach their expected potential and does not limit their growth due to capital constraints (Alam, Mian Smith). When MNCs get opportunities to expand their operations, they make investments in the host country. This additional investment from foreign investors and companies drive economic growth and development in the host country. Governments must develop secure property rights, put in place an efficient public sector and limit regulatory bans and restrictions on foreign companies. Governments must take measures to improve the investment climate (by offering incentives, tax holidays, reduce import duties) to attract and retain foreign investment. Also, governance should be made transparent and free of corruption to gain maximum benefit from FDI inflows (Globerman, Shapiro, Tang, 2004). Â  Government regulation should only aim to correct market failure and protect the welfare of the consumers, environment, employees and society. Bureaucracy, red tapism, complex documentation and regulations should be eliminated to attract more foreign investment and derive maximum benefits from it. Corruption not only deters foreign investors but also limits the spill over effects of economic growth and development to the masses. To reap the maximum benefit out of inward investments is to improve governance in the areas of human capital development. An educated and healthy workforce not only attracts foreign investors but also facilitates quick and effective knowledge and skills transfer. A less skilled and physically weak human resource of a host country starts to rely on the foreign investors and learn nothing from them. Thus, governance and budget allocations in the areas of human capital and infrastructure development must be improved. Such effective governance that protects local interests from unwarranted exploitation but also at the same time creates a conducive environment for foreign investment benefits the most. Q.2. Is sustainability a new meaning? Discuss the extent to which businesses and government have joined up to sustainability? Sustainability was well defined in a 1987 UN Conference as ‘meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs’. This encompasses ecological sustainability and human sustainability. Ecological sustainability refers to ‘redesigning organizations to contribute to sustainable economic development and the protection and renewal of the biosphere’ (Dunphy, 2000). Human sustainability means ‘building human capability and skills for sustainable high level organizational performance and for community and societal well-being’ (Dunphy, 2000). Many businesses and governments did not include sustainability as one of their primary objectives to achieve. Business organizations focused all their efforts and strategies on maximizing profits, even if that entailed exploiting the environment and depleting natural resources to obtain short term financial benefits. Governments too ignored this important issue. However, this widespread ignorance and disinterest towards sustainable development that prevailed ten years ago has been reversed. The awareness about the issue has increased now but a lack of cooperation and understanding between the businesses and governments has limited the success of initiatives towards sustainable development. There is a battle between voluntarism and compulsion going on between governments and businesses (Cowe Porritt, 2002). According to Cowe and Porritt, prominent businesses understand their responsibilities, but governments have not taken up their share of responsibilities, suggesting that voluntary business action towards sustainable development is better as compared to government intervention that ultimately has a negative impact. Government policy makers wrongly believe that attaining sustainability just involves devising environmental controls or employee protection laws to reduce exploitation while the businesses hold that by increasing the efficiency and productivity of their existing production systems they can prevent wastage of resources and environmental degradation. Sustainability actually involves developing whole new business models and incorporating organizational cultural change. It is the job of the governments to create awareness and give incentives for businesses to change their policies, procedures and incorporate sustainability in their vision and mission. U.S department of Commerce presents an example where a government department has increased the awareness sustainability. U.S Department of Commerce has encouraged U.S. firms to implement sustainable manufacturing practices. Instead of creating environmental and employee laws and levying tax charges on firms, the U.S Department of Commerce has spread the perception that firms that adopt environmental and economically sustainable manufacturing processes are able to reduce their cost of doing business and gain competitive advantage. U.S Department of Commerce’s Manufacturing Services unit has introduced a Sustainable Manufacturing Initiative (SMI) and Public-Private Dialogue with the aim of outlining U.S. industry’s most pressing sustainable manufacturing challenges and coordinating public and private sector efforts to address these challenges (International Trade Administration, 2010). Q.3. Using familiar case study, apply and critically evaluate the strategies for expansion into emerging markets? In recent times China and India, the two most fast emerging markets in Asia, have presented great opportunities and large market segments to be explored by foreign multinational companies. These countries not only have large consumer bases for products of international companies but also provide highly talented, educated yet less costly human resource (Van de Kuil, 2008). Taking the case of India, we understand that various MNCs have used different expansion strategies to enter the Indian market. Licensing and franchising is an effective expansion strategy. Licensing refers to an arrangement by which the licensor or the international company gives the right to the licensee to use patent rights, trademarks, copyrights or product or processes know how (Levi, 2007). Franchising refers to an arrangement or relationship whereby a franchisor provides a license to the franchisee to use the franchisor’s brand name, production techniques and management techniques in another geographic market. Franchising was used by McDonalds to enter the Indian market. The advantage that McDonald’s had by using franchising to expand into the Indian market was that it did not have to invest large sums of money in India and so did not face any financial risks and development and set up costs of business. It was not only a cost effective way of expansion but it was a quick way to expand. Franchisor (McDonald’s) has considerable control over the management and processes of the franchisee and at the same time benefits from the local knowledge of customer behavior and market trends that the Indian franchisee possesses. The Indian franchisee benefitted as it did not have to develop brand identity or brand positioning. It simply had to leverage the already established brand name and equity of McDonald’s. However, a major challenge that McDonald’s had to face in India was that of maintaining quality standards that it has internationally. In developing countries, it is difficult to find employees that are already trained to carry out the standard services. Strategic alliances and Joint Ventures are other important expansion strategies used by foreign companies to enter the Indian market. Strategic alliance refers to an agreement between two companies in order to combine their value chain activities for the purpose of competition advantage (Levi, 2007). Joint Venture occurs when one company has enough stake in another company that gives it a right to voice opinions in management issues but does not allow it to dominate. When the international retail giant – Wal-Mart wanted to expand its business to India, it formed a joint venture with Bharti Enterprises, Inc in 2006. Wal-Mart benefitted immensely from this joint venture to establish itself in the Indian market. Both Wal-Mart and Bharti Enterprise were able to form a working business unit (Fea, 2009). Wal-Mart was able to mitigate reputational and legal risks as it had a local partner involved. It was able to comply with all the Indian government restriction for foreign investors. The only likely threat to both the parties of this joint venture is that conflict of objectives and strategies may create rift between the two partners and raise risks for both.

Pramoedya ananta toer, his life and his literary achievements

Pramoedya ananta toer, his life and his literary achievements Chapter 2: Pramoedya Ananta Toer, his life and his literary achievements The account of Pramoedya Ananta Toers life and literary achievements, and the summary of his novel Bumi Manusia are mostly based on A. Teuuws book Citra Manusia Indonesia dalam Karya Sastra: Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1997:1-55), Schultz and Felters article, History, Education, and Nationalism in Pramoedya Toers Buru Quartet (2002), Dwi Elyonos unpublished dissertation of the Australian National University Harry Avelings and Willem Samuels Translations of Pramoedya Ananta Toers Novel Gadis Pantai: A Study of the factors, purposes, methods and effects of literary translation(2006:34-40), and two journal articles by GoGwilt entitled Pramoedyas Fiction and History: An Interview With Indonesian Novelist Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1996) and The Vanishing Genre of the Nyai Narrative: Reading Genealogies of English and Indonesian Modernism (2007). 2.1 The Literary Achievements of Pramoedya Ananta Toer Pramoedya Ananta Toer (6 February 1925-30 April 2006) was a leading Indonesian writer who was internationally renowned for his literary works which dwell on themes of social justice and humanity. He had written more than fifty novels, short stories, essays, social critiques and histories of which the majority have been translated into over 36 languages. He had collected more than a dozen international awards and had been frequently nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature since 1981. He was also an important figure in Indonesian literature, â€Å"an exponent of ‘universal humanism, the liberal and individualistic cultural ideology of the loose association of writers, artists and intellectuals often referred to as the ‘Gelanggang group or the ‘Angkatan 45, the generation of the revolution† (as cited in Foulcher, 2008:1). The exceptional quality of Pramoedyas novels lies in his power as a storyteller to re-create the historical scene for the present audience. In a statement by the Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, Pramoedyas novels â€Å"[illuminate] with brilliant stories the historical awakening and modern experience of the Indonesian people† (as quoted in a book entitled Polemik Hadiah Magsaysay, 1997:212-13). In Pramoedyas interview with GoGwilt about the English translation of the Buru tetralogy, he emphasized the importance of historical settings in his novels as well as the complex relation between history and personal biography (GoGwilt, 1996). Considering the historical scope of his work, his novels are also regarded as a typical example of post-colonial literature in South East Asia. One particular characteristic of this literature is the actual historical setting, which describes the diverse culture and language environment and its role in creating social difference within zones of c olonial contact (cf.see Niekerk, 2003 and Errington, 2008). Pramoedya was often compared to many great authors of the Western literature Camus, Tolstoy and Gorky, to name a few. The historical scope of his novels suggests an affinity with the great historical novels of nineteenth-century Europe, particularly in the context of socialist-realism in literature, in terms of narrative style and content. The story deals with themes of universal humanism such as freedom of expression, power struggle, racism and social injustice (see Kurniawan, 1999; GoGwilt, 1996). In general, Pramoedyas novels and short stories cover four different periods, spanning the period of Singasari and Majapahit kingdoms (1300-1600) (e.g. Arok Dedesand Arus Balik), the pre-independence period under the Dutch colonial rule at the end of 19th century (e.g. Buru Quartet, The Fugitive), the the Japanese occupation period under the Japanese in Indonesia during WWII (e.g. Perawan Remaja dalam Cengkeraman Militer), and the post-independence period of Soekarnos (e.g. Corruption,The History of the Overseas Chinese in Indonesia) and Soehartos (e.g.The Girl from the Coast andA Mutes Soliloquy) regimes. The blunt criticism of the ruling government contained in some of Pramoedyas works had caused him several periods of imprisonment under different government administrations.  · Some some of the international awards conferred upon himPramodya include the PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award in 1988, the Wertheim Award, in 1992, the controversial Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts in 1995, .  · the UNESCO Madanjeet Singh Prize in 1996 and the Chevalier de lOrdre des Arts et des Lettres Rà ©public of France in 2000. 2.2 The life of Pramoedya Ananta Toer Pramoedya Ananta Toer was born in a the small town of Blora, in the Province of Central Java, Indonesia, as the firstborn of eight siblings. His father, Mastoer, was a strong nationalist who took part in the Indonesian struggle for independence from the Dutch colonial rule and worked as a headmaster in a school under Boedi Oetomo Institute of Education, the first political native political organization in the Dutch East Indies (todays Republic of Indonesia). His mother, Oemi Saidah, was born from an aristocratic Javanese family. She was a full-time housewife who later took the role of the main breadwinner for her family when her husbands school was closed due to the oppression of the Dutch colonial government. His parents, particularly his mother, had a great influence in formulating his idealized image of the Indonesian people, which was reflected in most of his works. After spending his childhood in his home, Pramoedya went to the Radio Vocational School in Surabaya, but and had almost graduated when the Japanese invaded the city on the last day of the schools final examination period. During the Japanese occupation period he worked as a typist for the Japanese news agency Domei in Jakarta, where he met and built relations with many outstanding figures in Indonesian history. Having felt that he was treated unfairly, Pramoedya decided to escape from his work with the Japanese. In October 1945 he joined a paramilitary force known as Badan Keamanan Rakyat (BKR)in Cikampek (West Java) after the proclamation of Indonesian independence. During this time he began to write short stories and novels and also translated a several books from J.Veth, Frits van Raalte and Lode Zielens. His first major novel, Perburuan (The Fugitive), was completed during two years of captivity by the Dutch government in the Bukit Duri prison, Jakarta. During the first two decades of Indonesian independence, from the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s, Pramoedya became a renowned figure in Indonesian literature. This had broadened his social contacts especially in the world of literature and the arts. With time, these contacts contributed to his new perspective in politics and ideology. Several cultural exchanges, including trips to the Netherlands, the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China, had opened his mind to the worlds political situation at that time. However, the most important event for Pramoedya at that time would be his short trip to China in 1956. This visit seemed to have sparked his interest in Marxist ideology, an apparent reason of for his decision later on to join Lekra (Peoples Cultural Insitute), a leftist organization, in 1958. From then on, Pramoedya became more active in politics. His writing style became more politically driven, as evidenced in the publication of a book which contains the correspondence he h ad with an imaginary Chinese discussing the history of the Indonesian Chinese, Hoa Kiau di Indonesia (History of the Overseas Chinese in Indonesia). It specifically criticized the governments instruction at that time which banned the Chinese minority in Indonesia to do business in rural areas, forcing them to close down their businesses or hand them over to the local natives and relocate to urban areas. This created friction between him and Soekarnos government and caused his detention at the Cipinang prison for nine months. Nonetheless, Pramoedya continued to build up his reputation as a literary and social critic, writing in various newspapers and literary journals, translating several literary works which were mostly came from Russian authors including Leo Tolstoi, Mikhail Sholokhov, Maxim Gorky, Aleksandr Kuprin and publishing a book about the history of the nationalist movements in Indonesia. In 1962-1965 he worked as an editor of Lentera, the weekly cultural edition of the lef t-wing newspaper Bintang Timur, where he published many articles on Indonesian history and literature around 1900-1920. He was also a lecturer of Indonesian language and literature at the University of Res Publica and was a founder of the Multatuli Language and Literature Academy in 1963. In October 1965 he was again put behind bars due to his association with Lekra, the cultural and literary institute affiliated with the Indonesian Communist Party as the organization which was alleged to be responsible for an attempted coup with the assassination of several senior generals of the Indonesian military. This bloody event ended Soekarnos political career and marked the transition of power to Suhartos â€Å"New Order† regime. After this incident, Pramoedyas books were banned in Indonesia and he was arrested as a political prisoner without trial in the penal colony of Buru Island from 1965-1979. During this period, he composed the first two parts of the famous Buru Quartet (Bumi Manusia/This Earth of Mankind and Anak Semua Bangsa/Child of All Nations) but did not have the opportunity to write it down. They were originally meant as a semi-biographical work of Tirto Adhie Soerjo, a nationalist figure and the founder of Sarekat Islam, the first native organization in I ndonesia. After Pramoedya was released from prison, he remained was placed under house arrest in Jakarta until 1992. During this time period he completed the last two parts of the Buru Quartet: Jejak Langkah (1985; Footsteps) and Rumah Kaca (1990; House of Glass), which instantly became best-sellers in Indonesia and gained him an international recognition. Unfortunately, ten months later these books were banned by the government as subversive materials which contained Marxist-Leninist ideology. In spite of these hardships, he continued to write other great novels such as Gadis Pantai (The Girl from the Coast) in 1982, a semi-fictional novel which portrayed his grandmothers life; Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mutes Soliloquy) in 1995, a personal biography based on the collection of letters that he wrote for to his daughter during his imprisonment in Buru, which were but was not allowed to send; and Arus Balik in 1995, a long historical novel considered by some literary critics to be his greatest literary work, which was revolved around the Tuban Kingdom, at the beginning of the Portuguese invasion of the Indonesian archipelago in the 16th century. In 1998, with the toppling of Soehartos regime and the beginning of the reformation era, the ban for on his books was eventually lifted. Pramoedya remained active as a writer until the last days of his life, when his health deteriorated due to old age and bad smoking his habit of smoking. In 2006 Pramoedya was hospitalized because of complications with diabetes, heart and lung diseases. He died on April 30, 2006 at the age of 81. 2.3 Pramoedya Ananta ToersBumi Manusia Bumi Manusia was first published in 1980, a year after Pramoedyas release from Buru Island. It is the first part of a semi-biographical tetralogy of Minke, the protagonist who is modelled after RM. Tirto Adhi Soerjo, a real historical figure of the anti-colonial movements in Indonesia. The story revolves around the historical emergence of Indonesian nationalism at the turn of the century when the Dutch colonial empire ruled in the East Indies. It explores various themes of universal discourse such as the emergence of nationalism, the corruption of the legal system, gender issues, the contradiction between traditional and modern values, and the importance of language as an instrument for articulating national identity. However, there are two important aspects to be highlighted in the novel: the realistic portrayal of colonial life in Indonesia, which provides the present audiencereaders today with a historical overview of that time and the way the author manages to convey to the prese ntmodern readers the complex socio-cultural interactions among various ethnicities in the colonial period and the inherent social attitude underlying these interactions. The story is reconstructed from the historical work which had been carried out before he was imprisoned for years without trial in Buru. In the first six or seven years of imprisonment in Buru, political prisoners were not given access to any writings or articles, let alone allowed to write on a piece of paper, so Pramoedya had to recite the story to his fellow prisoners. The story is what shaped the Buru quartet: Bumi Manusia, Anak Semua Bangsa, Jejak Langkah, and Rumah Kaca. The story isdeveloped through inner conflicts of the main character, which is are caused by the contradiction between the modern values he acquired from his western education, the traditional values which came from his Javanese roots, and the harsh social reality of living under the a colonial rule which denies all of the values he was taught to believe. The novel is told in the first-person and tells the life of Minke, a young Javanese aristocrat and the only native who receives a western education in an elite school which only Europeans are allowed to attend. It is set at the end of the 19th century, during the final years of the Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia, and provides detailed illustration on the situationpicture of colonial life in Surabaya at that time. At the beginning of the novel, the main character is introduced to an exceptional native woman known as Nyai Oentosoroh, the concubine of a Dutch property owner called Herman Mellema, and to her beautiful daughter, Annelies. Over time, Nyai Oentosoroh becomes an important figure in Minkes life, his personal life mentor and spiritual mother. The story of her origin, how she was sold into concubinage by her father, her rise in position as the overseer of her masters entire estates and businesses, as well as the fate of her daughter, Annelies, forms major parts of the storyline in Bumi Manusia. Minke falls in love with Annelies, whom he eventually marries according to his native customs. However, because of the family dispute over Mellemas inheritance, Annelies had to annul her marriage to Minke by the order of the Dutch colonial court. At the end of the novel, Annelies is forced to leave her mother and her husband Minke, and go to the Netherlands to live with her legal guardian, despit e all the efforts made by Nyai Oentosoeroh and Minke to resist the decision of the Dutch courts. Socio-cultural interaction among different ethnicities (Dutch, Europeans, Indos, Chinese, and natives) in the East Indies plays an important role in the development of the story and is skilfully portrayed by Pramoedya through his inventive use of Indonesian language variations, combination of different registers and the complexity of interplay between Javanese, Old Malay, Dutch, English and Jakartan dialects. One example is given below, where Minke tries to predict tell the identity of a man who follows him covertly, based on a certain ethnic stereotype which is widespread in Indonesia: Melihat dari pemunculannya, ia bukan orang Tionghoa, juga bukan Peranakan Tionghoa, juga bukan pedagang. Kalau toh Tionghoa Peranakan boleh jadi dari kalangan terpelajar, mungkin pegawai pada kantor Majoor der Chineezen.Atau peranakan Eropa-Tionghoa yang habis berlibur dan kini kembali ke tempat pekerjaan di Surabaya [] Ia jelas bukan pedagang. Bukan begitu pakaian pedagang. Atau ia seorang jurubayar pada Borsumrij atau Geowehrij? Atau mungkin sendiri Mayor der Chineezen? Tetapi seorang mayor biasanya angkuh dan merasa setara dengan orang Eropa, tak mungkin memperhatikan diriku, bahkan takkan peduli pada Pribumi siapapun. (Bumi Manusia, 1991:146) He didnt look Chinese, or like a Mixed-Blood Chinese, nor like a merchant. Anyway, if he was a Mixed-Blood Chinese, he was probably an educated one, perhaps an employee at the office of the Majoor der Chineezen the Dutch-installed leader of the local Chinese community? Or perhaps a Mixed-Blood European-Chinese returning from holidays to his workplace in Surabaya? He was clearly not a merchant. They werent the clothes of a trader. Or perhaps he was a cashier at one of the ‘Big Five Dutch trading companies Borsumij or Geowehrij? Or perhaps he was the Majoor der Chineezen himself? But the major were always arrogant, considering themselves equals with Europeans and so wouldnt take any notice of me, or any other Native for that matter. (Bumi Manusia, Lanes translation 1991:111) Words containing socio-cultural references abound in the dialogue. However, it is very difficult to render these socio-cultural nuances into English, thus it is understandable if sometimes the English translation cannot convey completely the richness of the dialogue in the novel. One great difficulty in the translation of Bumi Manusia is how to convey to the foreign readers the inherent social attitudes embedded in these culture-specific words which operate under different socio-cultural norms and history. One example of a culturally-marked word containing an important socio-cultural reference in Bumi Manusia is the word nyai. Nyai originally refers to a respectful form of address to a Javanese woman. However, the form undergoes a considerable change of meaning when it is adapted used into Indonesian. It becomes a â€Å"euphemistic, pejorative, and disrespectful term† referring to a historical stereotype of a native concubine or mistress in a colonial Dutch East Indies househo ld and implying the inherent social attitude behind the word nyai(GoGwilt, 2007:412): Bukan hanya Mevrouw Tà ©linga atau aku, rasanya siapa pun tahu, begitulah tingkat susila keluarga nyai-nyai: rendah, jorok, tanpa kebudayaan, perhatiannya hanya pada soal-soal berahi semata. Mereka hanya keluarga pelacur, manusia tanpa pribadi, dikodratkan akan tenggelam dalam ketiadaan tanpa bekas [] Semua lapisan kehidupan menghukum keluarga nyai-nyai; juga semua bangsa: Pribumi, Eropa, Tionghoa, Arab. (Bumi Manusia, 1980:44) Not only Mrs. Telinga and I knew, but it felt as if the whole world knew, that such indeed was the moral level of the families of nyais: low, dirty, without culture, moved only by lust. They were the families of prostitutes; they were people without character, destined to sink into nothingness, leaving no trace [] All social classes had passed judgment on the nyai; also all races: Native, European, Chinese, Arab. (This Earth, 54) Interactions between Minke, Nyai Oentosoroh and other characters in the book who came from different cultural and language backgrounds are parallel to the diverse culture and language situation in modern Indonesia. The vital role of Nyai Oentosoroh in Minkes life, as the person who is mostly responsible for Minkes growing awareness ofn the oppression oppressiveof the Dutch colonial towards rule over him and his fellow countrymen, in some way, represents in some way the indispensable role of language in growing nationalism in Indonesia. The account of Nyai Oentosorohs life,her extraordinary characteristics and excellent ability in to absorbing the knowledge given by her Dutch master and using use it to climb up from the bottom to the top rank of the colonial society, may have an indirect association with the historical development of the Indonesian language and its elevated status as a national language today. In the past, Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian Language), a variant of Bazaar Ma lay, was a minority language in the East Indies. It was a language of trading and commerce, which is used throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Bazaar Malay was once considered as a language with no aesthetic values and lacking in expressiveness compared to other languages. However, its use as a trading instrument throughout the Indonesian archipelago has enhanced its flexibility in absorbing modern concepts and elaborate cultural elements from other languages and modern concepts brought by western civilisation. This is likelymight be one of the reasons why it was selected as the national language of Indonesia. Bumi Manusia,as the first part of the Buru quartet, provides an important historical account and unique perspective of colonial life at the end of the 19th century, an important period in Indonesian history, which determined the future of the Indonesian people as a free nation. As Razif Bahari argues in his book entitled Pramoedya Postcolonially,the tetralogy and its literary and social context may provide valuable insights regarding the force which drives the main character to obtain power and freedom, and could answer some of the questions regarding the construction of history, language, and gender within postcolonial literature literary studies (Bahari, 2007). It is the significance of cultural, historical, and literary aspects of Bumi Manusia which makes the study of its translation worthwhile. It gives new insights into strategies and methods employed in the translation of cross-cultural texts as well as their cultural implications; and ways to convey effectively the message of the original text to foreign readers without disturbing the story narrative flow and maintaining the target readers interest and expectations.

Effects of Violent Video Games | Essay

Effects of Violent Video Games | Essay Violent computer games, and their possible effect on players. Introduction The Problems Social Effects of Playing Computer Games Conclusion Bibliography Introduction Feeding childrens passion for computers, billions of dollars in both public and private funds are being spent to give children access in school, at home, and in the community. Nearly every school is now equipped with computers, (Fisch, 2004, p. 2) and over two-thirds of our nations children have access at home. (Fisch, 2004, p. 4) But is computer technology actually improving their lives? Computer technology has transformed society in a number of profound ways. For better or worse, the increasing pervasiveness of computer technology is a reality no one can ignore or stop, not that one would. Computers are fast becoming integrated into nearly every aspect of daily living, from school to work, to banking and shopping, to paying taxes and even voting. They provide access to a wide range of information without a trip to the library. They convey personal messages in place of the post office or telephone. And they compete with newspapers, radio, and television in providing entertainment an d news of the day. Computer technology also has a profound effect on our economy. Not only are computers changing the way goods and services are manufactured, distributed, and purchased, but they are also changing the skills workers need to be productive and earn a living. This climate sets the stage whereby we encourage our children to utilize a computer, as such represents not the world of tomorrow, but the world of today, and thus they need to be computer literate. The public generally agrees that for children to participate socially, economically, and politically in this new and different world, they must acquire a certain level of comfort and competence in using computers. National polls indicate widespread support for providing children with access to computers to enable them to learn adequate computer skills and improve their education (Trotter, 1998, pp. 6-9). In surveys, most parents and children report that they view computers and the Internet as a positive force in their lives, despite conce rns about exposure to inappropriate commercial, sexual, and violent content (National School Boards Foundation, 2000). Most parents believe that the Internet can help children with their homework and allow them to discover fascinating, useful things, and that children without access are disadvantaged compared to those with access. The scenario’s described above represent the current generation of parents, as opposed to their children. A generation that grew up on computer and video games that their parents had no idea of what they were playing, or even what the technology was. Thus, there was a real understanding and involvement gap (Brougere et al, 2004, p. 1-4). Those basically unsupervised children are now adults. Adults that grew up selecting their own video and computer games while developing their own culture without guidance to determination as to what was good for them or bad, as they were just interested in the experience of a new technology changing the world of play and relaxation. Thus it was the game, almost regardless of what it was, and not the content that ruled (Brougere et al, 2004, p. 1-4). When discussing violence in computer games, as a result of this foundational background understanding, there are three standards from which to choose, the children of parents who grew up playing games and basically picking them out themselves, those whose parents supervised what they played and purchased, which is a small minority, and lastly, those adults who either didn’t have either video games or computers in their home. The assumption is, that almost all of today’s adults played video and or computer games when they were children, if not their own, then on a friends console or computer. Children of a generation whose parents were maybe exposed somewhat to computers at work, but more often than not, were not. Thus, the problem of violence becomes one that rests on the shoulders of game developers, manufacturers and designers based upon industry research, educational and emotional findings, as well as studies concerning the effects of violence on children. The parents of today’s adults knew about the creeping violence on TV, that they grew up with and which was publicized when they were children and teenagers. But, the circumstances are different today, as there is no television standards board making noise about PC and video game content. Thus, the level of acceptable violence as well as the controls, industry oversight and general standards as to what is and is not acceptable comes into play. If you question the underlying foundation, think about the popularity of Madden football. Like it our not, that U.S. sport tops boxing for all out mayhem, violence, competitive spirit and aggression. Thus, the dilemma as represented by attempting to equate the level of violence and their effe ct is based upon a generation that really had no boundaries. The jury is still out on the subject of the effects of computer games on children, teenagers, and young adults, and it is seemingly hopelessly divided. There are â€Å"an overwhelming number of parents†, pegged at 96 percent, based upon a survey conducted by the Interactive Digital Software Association who indicate that they pay attention to video and computer game content that their children play (Business Wire, 2003). That same survey indicated that 44 percent of the parents in homes that own either video game consoles and or computers stated that they themselves used to play interactive games and that they play with their children either on a daily or weekly basis (Business Wire, 2003). The returns from that survey found that all in all over 60% of the responding parents play interactive games with their children at least once in the month (Business Wire, 2003). The parents responding at a rate of 89 percent stated that they were there when the games were purchased for chil dren under the age of 18. The survey revealed some interesting trends, as well as revealed that the children who are playing computer and or video games are the offspring of former and present players themselves. This brings to mind if these parents acceptance level of violence in computer and video games is slightly jaded in terms of what constitutes violence. In fact, the majority of gamers, as they are termed, are in fact adults, according to the Interactive Digital Software Association survey (Business Wire, 2003). The survey revealed that the entire universe of game players is getting older. The percentage of players who were under the age of 18 made up just 30 percent of the gamer population, which is down from the 34 percent recorded in 2002 (Business Wire, 2003). However, the survey avoided the critical issue, the extent of violence in the games the parents indicated that they were supervising the buying for, as well as playing with their children. The survey did state that 36 percent of the games pla yed on computer were action oriented, which tied with puzzle, board, and card games for the top spot (Business Wire, 2003). In fact, the preferences were almost evenly divided across the four categories, with driving and racing games scoring at 36 percent, and sports at 32 percent. Excessive, unmonitored use of computers, especially when combined with use of other screen technologies, such as television, can place children at risk for harmful effects on their physical, social, and psychological development. Children need physical activity, social interaction, and the love and guidance of caring adults to be healthy, happy, and productive. (Hartmann and Brougere, 2004, p. 37- 41) Too much time in front of a screen can deprive children of time for organized sports and other social activities that are beneficial to child development. (Hartmann and Brougere, 2004, p. 37- 41) In addition, children may be exposed to violent, sexual, or commercial content beyond their years, with long-term negative effects (Brougere et al, 2004, pp. 8). At present, excessive use of computers among children, especially younger children, is not typical. National survey data gathered in spring of 2000 indicated that children ages 2 to 17 spent about 34 minutes per day, on average, using computers at home, with use increasing with age (Preschoolers ages 2 to 5 averaged 27 minutes per day, school-age children ages 6 to 11 averaged 49 minutes per day, and teens ages 12 to 17 averaged 63 minutes per day) (Brougere et al, 2004, pp. 9). Available data on computer use at school suggest that exposure in the early primary grades, at least, is relatively modest. A spring 1999 survey of 26 elementary schools in the heart of Silicon Valley, where computer use might be expected to be high, found that although 70% of teachers in kindergarten through third grade had their students do some work on computers, the students computer time averaged less than 10 minutes per day (Brougere et al, 2004, pp. 11). This data suggest that younger children in particular are not currently using computers for excessive amounts of time. In the case of video games, even their critics acknowledge that they are instructing our children. The critics just dont like the form and the sometimes violent and sexually explicit content of the instruction, which they believe teaches children aggressive behaviors (Suellentrop, 2006). Yet if such games are nothing more than murder simulators, as one critic has called them, why is it, as gaming enthusiasts never tire of pointing out, that the murder rate has declined in recent years, there are more video games, and more violent ones, than ever (Suellentrop, 2006). The important thing to find out about video games isnt whether they are teachers; The question is, as game designer Ralph Koster writes in A Theory of Fun for Game Design (2004), what do they teach? (Suellentrop, 2006). The marketing strategies of game companies links closely to Hollywood action movies as a means to reach more gamers. The Cinema has emerged as the most prominent influence on games. Both cinema and games are superficially alike, in that they are relatively modern media that deliver audio-visual content to paying audiences. The similarities that the media share have meant that some artistic strategies can be transferred between the two. However, there is a limit to the extent that artistic techniques can be taken from one and used in the other. Game designers are increasingly using unsuitable cinematic conventions in the creation of their games. Activision, a Santa Monica based game manufacturer generated the Fantastic 4 game in agreement with its studio, whereby you can â€Å"assume the persona of Mir. Fantastic/Reed Richards, Invisible Woman/Sue Storm, Human Torch/Johnny Storm, or Thing/Ben Grimm and master their individual attributes and unique powers to solve puzzles, overcome obstacles, and defeat enemies. Another option is to control the Fantastic 4 together as a team and dynamically switch b etween characters during their adventures, and combine super powers in order to level more devastating attacks and accomplish missions† (Society for the Advancement of Education, 2005). And the trend includes almost any Hollywood movie that can be converted to action, with the Fantastic 4 representing a mild version of what the industry has to offer. The basic theme is the ‘good guys, against the ‘bad guys’ in such re-creations as â€Å"X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, the rival X-Men and Brotherhood† where you are â€Å"†¦ bonded by a common enemy, fight side by side for the first time, allowing players to switch instantly between super-power wielding teammates as they overcome obstacles, solve puzzles, and defeat more than 100 types of enemies† (Society for the Advancement of Education, 2005). Violence is a popular form of entertainment â€Å"a crowd of onlookers enjoys a street fight just as the Romans enjoyed the gladiators, and wrestling is a popular spectator sport not only in the United States, but in many countries in the Middle East (Centerwall, 1989, p. 23). Local news shows provide extensive coverage of violent crimes in order to increase their ratings. Technological advances have dramatically increased the availability of violent entertainment. The introduction of television was critical, particularly in making violent entertainment more available to children. More recently, cable systems, videocassette recorders, and video games have increased exposure. Hand-held cameras and video monitors now permit filming of actual crimes in progress. Economic competition for viewers, particularly young viewers, has placed a premium on media depictions of violence, as their attention translates into store sales. The Problems The level of acceptable violence of computer games, as well as violence in itself thus represents the question, as the top selling computer and video games all were violence based. And while the non-violent ‘Sims’ simulation game proved to be the top seller at 16 million copies, the next four games totaled 32 million (Wikipedia, 2007). Of those games Starcraft, 9.5 million copies sold, is a strategy war game played in space, whereby one can get a good idea of its content by the name on its expansion pack, ‘StarCraft: Brood War’ (Blizzard Entertainment, 2007). Half-Life (Planet Half-Life, 2007), 8 million copies, is a first person shooter game featuring blood spatters and other effects. Of the top ten computer games four are violence based, and of the next ten, 11 through 20, 5 are violence-based games (Wikipedia, 2007). Thus the ethics are sales, as well as creative foundation and premise from which the games are fashioned. The differing themes represent dir ections in terms of game development, what the manufacturer has build their reputation on, and the gamer profile they appeal to. Based upon the preceding the industry is split down the middle, with half gong for violence, and the other utilizing non-violent content. There is considerable evidence that violence on television, in video as well as computer games is harmful to children (Hope, 2005). And just as the current parents became adjusted to certain levels of violence in their exposures decades ago, such has magnified for their offspring according to lecturer Lesley Murphy of Robert Gordon University (Grant, 2006). The preceding calls for a scientific psychology concerning the effects violence games had on the parents to understand the level their children are being exposed to. Such should not only help us to understand our own the parent’s violence level, it should help to determine where this all stands in the realm of what is normal, speaking in relative terms. Playing computer games can be an important building block to computer literacy because it enhances childrens ability to read and visualize images in three-dimensional space and track multiple images simultaneously and there is also limited evidence available also indicates t hat home computer use is linked to slightly better academic performance. (Alington et al (1992, pp. 539-553). Dominick (1984, pp. 136-147) expresses concern there are the findings that playing violent computer games may increase aggressiveness and desensitize a child to suffering, and that the use of computers may blur a childs ability to distinguish real life from simulation. Compared to girls, boys spend more than twice as much time per week playing computer games (Funk, 1993, pp. 86-89) and are five times more likely to own a computer game system (Griffiths and Hunt, 1995, pp. 189-193). In a study of self-reported leisure time activities of 2,200 third and fourth graders, computer games topped the list of activities among boys: 33% of boys reported playing computer games, compared with fewer than 10% of girls (Harrel et al, 1997, 246-253). Initially it was thought that this disparity was the result of the games violent themes and lack of female protagonists (Malone, 1981, pp. 333-370). A more likely reason, however, is the difference between the genders in their play preferences: boys ten d to prefer pretend play based on fantasy, whereas girls tend to prefer pretend play based on reality, a rare theme for computer games, even those designed specifically for girls. Social Effects of Playing Computer Games As mentioned earlier, game playing has long been the predominant use of home computers among childrenespecially among younger boys. Although the available research indicates that moderate game playing has little social impact on children, concerns nonetheless have been raised about excessive game playing, especially when the games contain violence. Research suggests that playing violent computer games can increase childrens aggressive behavior in other situations. Existing research indicates that moderate game playing does not significantly impact childrens social skills and relationships with friends and family either positively or negatively. Studies often found no differences in the sociability and social interactions of computer game players versus non-players, (Phillips et al, 1995, pp. 687-691) but a few studies found some mildly positive effects. For example, one study found that frequent game players met friends outside school more often than less frequent players. (Colwell et al, 1995, pp. 195-206) Another study of 20 families with new home computer game sets explored the benefits and dangers of playing games and found that computer games tended to bring family members together for shared play and interaction. (Mitchell, 1998, pp. 121-135) Less is known, however, about the long-term effects of excessive computer use among the 7% to 9% of children who play computer games for 30 hours per week or more. (Griffiths and Hunt, 1995, pp. 189-193). It has been suggested that spending a disproportionate amount of time on any one leisure activity at the expense of others will hamper social and educational development. (Griffiths and Hunt, 1995, pp. 189-193) Indeed, one study of fourth- to twelfth-grade students found that those who reported playing arcade video games or programming their home computer for more than an hour per day, on average, tended to believe they had less control over their lives compared with their peers. (Wiggins, 1997) In addition, some evidence suggests that repeated playing of violent computer games may lead to increased aggressiveness and hostility and desensitize children to violence. (Provenzo, 2001, pp. 231-234) Although educational software for home computer use includes many games that encourage positive, pro-social behaviors by rewarding players who cooperate or share, the most popular entertainment software often involves games with competition and aggression, and the amount of aggression and violence has increased with each new generation of games. A content analysis of recent popular Nintendo and Sega Genesis computer games found that nearly 80% of the games had aggression or violence as an objective. (Dietz, 1998, pp. 425-442) One survey of seventh- and eighth-grade students found that half of their favorite games had violent themes. (Funk, 1993, pp. 86-89) Yet parents often are unaware of even the most popular violent titles, despite the rating system from the Entertainment In a 1998 survey, 80% of junior high students said they were familiar with Duke Nukema violent computer game rated mature (containing animated blood, gore, and violence and strong sexual Content), but fewer than 5% of parents had heard of it. (Oldberg, 1998) Numerous studies have shown that watching violent television programs and films increases children and adults aggression and hostility (Friedrich-Cofer and Huston, 2000, pp. 364-371) thus, it is plausible that playing violent computer games would have similar effects. The research on violent computer games suggests that there is, indeed, an association between playing such games and increased aggression, and that the critical variable is a preference for playing aggressive games, rather than the amount of time spent playing. (Friedrich-Cofer and Huston, 2000, pp. 364-371). Several experimental studies suggest that playing a violent game, even for brief periods, has short-term transfer effects, such as increased aggression in childrens free play, (Friedrich-Cofer and Huston, 2000, pp. 364-371) hostility to ambiguous questions, and aggressive thoughts. For example, one study of third and fourth graders found that those children who played a violent game (Mortal Kombat II) responded more violently to three of six open-ended questions than did children who played a nonviolent computer game (basketball) (Friedrich-Cofer and Huston, 2000, pp. 364-371). Furthermore, it has been found that children who have a preference for and play aggressive computer games demonstrate less pro-social behavior, such as donating money or helping someone. (Friedrich-Cofer and Huston, 2000, pp. 364-371). Studies of television have found that continued exposure to violence and aggression desensitizes children to others suffering, (Rule and Ferguson, 2001, pp. 29-50) but studies of computer games have not yet explored such a link. At least since the 1980s, however, both the U.S. and British military have used violent video games for training, reportedly to desensitize soldiers to the suffering of their targets and to make them more willing to kill. (Kiddoo, 2000, pp. 80-82). Conclusion The foundation of violence in computer games stems from the fascination with violence as spawned by the movies as well as television. These mediums have become an overbearing influence in game development and its expressive methods are being applied in game context. A look at the graphics of any video game reveals the similarities as well as attempt to capture as much realism as possible. Such is a natural evolution of the product and technology, but such also is continually blurring the fantasy atmosphere that used to be clearly delineated. The violence that exists in over 50 percent of computer as well as video games is not so much a product of the designers and manufacturers; it is a product of society in that the function of their businesses is to fulfill a need. And since the foundation for that need is there, they continue to create the games to fill it. The problem starts and exists with the consumer market, one that is a product of television and cinema culture that has been at work long before computer and video games arrived. There is now a sincere understanding that the effects have become deeply rooted facets of industrialized cultures, and games can not be blamed, yet they, along with other entertainment medium are contributing to the problem. Youth violence affects us all, and thus a reversal of the process is going to be a difficult undertaking as a result of the historical context from which it came. A look at the top selling video game categories reveals the extent of the problem: Table – Top Games Genres (Wikipedia, 2007) Rank Genre 1 Strategy / RPG 2 Action 3 Sport Games 4 Racing 5 All Shooter Games 6 Simulations 7 Family Entertainment 8 Children’s Entertainment 9 Fighting 10 Other Games 11 Edutainment With the following games rated as all time favorites, based on violent content: Donkey Kong, 1981, Nintendo Co. Ltd, Nintendo of America, Inc., Arcade. Doom, 1993, id Software, id Software, P.C. DOS. Dragon’s Lair, 1983. Magicom Multimedia, Cinematronics, Arcade. Duke Nukem, 1991, Apogee Software Ltd., Apogee Software Ltd., PC DOS. E.T.: The Extraterrestrial, 1983, Atari, Inc., Atari Inc., Atari 2600. Final Fantasy series I – IX, 1990 2003, Square Enix Co., Sony Computer Entertainment America, Inc., Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, PlayStation, PlayStation 2. Final Fantasy VII, 1996, Square Co., Sony Computer Entertainment America, Inc., PlayStation. Grand Theft Auto III, DMA Design Ltd., Rockstar Games, PlayStation2 Half-Life, 1998, Valve Software, Sierra On-Line, Inc., P.C. Win. ’95. Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker, 2003, Nintendo Co. Ltd, Nintendo of Europe, Inc., GameCube. Mario Bros I-VII, 1983 –2003, Nintendo Co. Ltd, Nintendo of America, Inc., Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, GameCube. Max Payne, 2001, Remedy Entertainment Ltd., GodGames, Win. ’95. Metal Gear Solid, 1998, Konami Computer Entertainment Japan Co., Ltd., Konami of America, Inc., PlayStation. Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, 1998, Konami Computer Entertainment Japan Co., Ltd., Konami of America, Inc., PlayStation 2. Myst, 1994, Broderbund Software, Keyboard Mouse, Macintosh. Pac-Man, 1980, Namco Ltd., Midway Mfg. Co., Arcade. Perfect Dark, 2000, Rare Ltd., Rare Ltd., Nintendo 64. Pokemon, 1998, Game Freak, Inc., Nintendo of America, Inc., Game Boy. Pong, 1973, Atari, Inc., Atari Inc., Arcade. Resident Evil, 2002, Capcom Co., Ltd., Capcom U.S.A., Inc., GameCube. Rogue Leader, 2001, Factor 5, Lucas Arts, GameCube. Silent Hill, 1999, Konami Computer Entertainment Kobe (KCEK), Konami of America, Inc., PlayStation. Space Invaders, 1978, Taito Corporation, Taito America Corp., Arcade. Spacewar, 1962, Russell, S. Street Fighter II, 1991, Capcom Co., Ltd., Capcom U.S.A., Inc., Arcade. Super Mario Bros., 1985, Nintendo Co. Ltd, Nintendo of America, Inc., Nintendo Entertainment System. Tekken 3, 1998, Namco Ltd., Namco Hometek, Inc., PlayStation. Tennis for Two, 1958. Higinbotham, W. Tetris, 1989, Pajitnov, A., Nintendo of America, Inc., Game Boy. Tomb Raider, Core Design Ltd., Eidos Interactive, PlayStation. Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness, 2003, Core Design Ltd., Eidos Interactive, PlayStation 2. Winning Eleven 6: Final Evolution, 2003, Konami Computer Entertainment Kobe (KCEK), Konami Computer Entertainment Japan Co., Ltd., GameCube. Wolfenstein 3D, 1991, Apogee Software Ltd., Apogee Software Ltd., PC DOS Zelda I –VI, 1987-2003, Nintendo Co. Ltd, Nintendo of America, Inc., Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, GameCube. As a business, the economics of a return on investment figures importantly into the reasons as to why so many violent games are produced. Simply speaking there is a market for them! The high cost of producing games engenders a desire within the companies financing games production to ensure a return on their investment. In most popular mass culture, this has seen a cautious approach to creating content. There has been a streamlining of the creation of content, be it music, films or games, that has seen the removal of as many variables as possible in order to produce content that can be easily quantified and accounted for. Companies are reluctant to take risks and the simplest way of avoiding them is to repeat previously profitable formulae, or in the case of a developing medium, such as games, to adopt the techniques of the more developed and superficially similar medium of cinema. Designers are reliant upon the finance provided by publishing companies to create games. This has seen the production of numerous games based on Hollywood films and characters, or the construction of games that can be marketed and sold on the strength of their cinematic aesthetics and sensibilities. Computer and video game companies base their strategies of what to produce based upon careful market research and raw numbers, and the fact is, since 50% of the market has been and continues to be buying violent game content, they will continue to design and market these types of games! And while the problem is deep seated, there is a logical and easy solution, if only the adults will play along. The survey conducted by the Interactive Digital Software Association (2001), indicated the following statistics: adults purchase 90% of all games sold And that is the only statistic that will be utilized to make the point. As the controlling variable in the purchase, it is the adults that need to be reached. The problem is how? Educating Adults to the problem is the logical answer. But as the primary buyers of games overall, they are also heavy buyers of violent game content themselves. The preceding is more than an ethical dilemma, it is a cultural one. One whereby the cycle needs to be broken with the same vigor and force that instilled it in the first place. But, that took decades and billions in advertising and marketing dollars to put into place. Thus it seems that the only force large enough to impact upon this situation are governments. Therein lies the ethical problem, for this speaks of another regulation is a world that is fast becoming over regulated in order to save ourselves from ourselves! The solution that the preceding is leading up to is the same as has been done in the instance of cigarette smoking, warning labels on each box as a mandated action. Could the foundation for this approach be similar to the health risk utilized in the instance of cigarettes, only in this instance as a societal risk? That represents an extremely touchy subject as it seemingly broaches upon freedom of choice. The warning labels and legislation to curtail smoking has achieved success as a result of the non-smokers who did not wish to inhale second hand smoke in restaurants, offices and other public indoor locales. These restrictions did not and do not restrict smokers for smoking. Thus, why would it curtail violent game players from playing. Thus, could a violent game tax be the solution. This would or might represent a choice in that the extra money so charged would be put into a victims and marketing fund to fuel additional education on the dangers of violence. Seemingly, that might create an outcry as well, however, as is the case with any type of social change, the majority wins out, thus the non-violent lobby would have to organize itself for a long